What is Research? Types, Purpose, Characteristics, Process

What is Research?

Research means a systematic and objective study to find facts which can be answers to questions and solutions to problems.

Social sciences Encyclopedia defines research as the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct as to verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aid in the construction of a theory or in the practice of art.

In a different way effort to reach definiteness or certainty, to collect facts and ascertain truth constitute research. In research, we examine facts for truth. When facts are repeatedly examined and tested, truth is established. This leads to certainty and incorporates a generalization which is unique.

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Definitions of Research

According to Kerlinger, research can be defined as a “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”.

According to Emory, research can be defined as “any organized activity designed and carried out to provide information for solving a problem”.

According to Martin Shuttle Worth, “Research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.”

According to Creswell, “Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue”.

The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research in more detail as “a studious inquiry or examination; especially: investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws”.

According to Clifford Woody, research can be defined as “defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions, reaching conclusions and testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis”.

According to Black and Champion, research can be defined as “obtaining information through empirical observations that can be used for the systematic development of logically related propositions attempting to establish casual relations among variables”.

According to Young, research can be defined as “a scientific undertaking which, by means of logical and systematic techniques aims to: (i) discover new facts or verify and test old facts, (ii) analyse their sequences, interrelationships and causal explanations. (iii) develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour”

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Types of Research

Basically, research is classified in two types.

• Basic or pure research
• Applied or practical research

Basic or pure research

Basic or pure research explores broad, inclusive laws, rules, theories and tendencies with precise causation. Pure research is an intellectual response to great questions and seemingly difficult causal complexities.

Theory of gravity (Newton), a theory of relativity (Einstein), and birth of the universe theory (Hoyle and Naralikar theory) are examples of pure research. Such pure research may or may not be practical and socially useful immediately.

Applied or practical research

Applied or practical research aims at making existing, available knowledge useful in solving present problems of the society and individuals vis-a-vis production, distribution, consumption, and minimization of pain.

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What is Social Research?

According to Pauline Young, social research is defined in the following words. “We may define social research as the systematic method of discovering new facts or verifying old facts, through sequence, interrelationship, causal explanations and the natural laws which cover them.

Prof. M. H. Copal, a senior Indian social scientist defined social research as the study of phenomena resulting from an interaction between different human groups in the process of their living together.

This study helps us in generalizing, theorizing and policy planning.

Social research is intrinsically dynamic and involves a large number of variables, some controllable some not so controllable.

As a result, social research involves a process of continuous revision of existing laws, theories, periodic refutation and/or modification of the same laws and theories. Freshly generated or collected data i.e. primary data give us new insights and evidence to arrive at new conclusions.

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Purpose of Research

The Purpose of Research can be summarized by considering various types of research and their applications:

Purposes of Basic Research

Basic research is the research which is done for knowledge enhancement, the research which does not have immediate commercial potential. The research is done for human welfare, animal welfare and plant kingdom welfare. It is called basic, pure, fundamental research.

The main motivation is to expand man’s knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research. Basic research lay down the foundation for the applied research. Dr. G. Smoot says “people cannot foresee the future well enough to predict what is going to develop from the basic research”.

Purposes of Applied Research

Applied research is designed to solve practical problem of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge sake. The goal of applied research is to improve the human condition. It focuses on analysis and solving social and real life problems. This research is generally conducted on large scale basis, it is expensive.

As such, it often conducted with the support of some funding agency like government, public corporation, World Bank, UNICEF, UGC etc. According to Hunt, “applied research is an investigation for ways of using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems” for example: improve agriculture crop production, treat or cure a specific disease, improve the energy efficiency homes, offices, how can communication among workers in large companies be improved? Applied research can be further classified as problem oriented and problem solving research.

Problem oriented research:- research is done by industry apex body for sorting out problems faced by all the companies. WTO does problem oriented research for developing countries, in India Agriculture and Processed Food Export Development Authority (APEDA) conduct regular research for the benefit of agri-industry. Problem solving:-this type of research is done by an individual company for the problem faced by it. Marketing research and market research are the applied research.

For example: Videocon international conducts research to study customer satisfaction level. In short, the main aim of applied research is to discover some solution for some pressing practical problem.

Purposes of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research aims to measure the quantity or amount and compares it with past records and tries to project for future period. In social sciences, “quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships”. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories or hypothesis pertaining to phenomena.

The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research. Statistical methods are used extensively with in fields such as economics and commerce.

Quantitative research involving the use of structured questions, where the response options have been pre-determined and large number of respondents is involved. Example: Total sales of soap industry in terms of rupees cores and or quantity in terms of lakhs tones for particular year, say 2008, could be researched, compared with past 5 years and then projection for 2009 could be made.

Purposes of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research presents non-quantitative type of analysis. Qualitative research is collecting, analyzing and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Qualitative research refers to the meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols, metaphors, and description of things. Qualitative research is much more subjective and uses very different methods of collecting information, mainly individual, in- depth interviews and focus groups. The nature of this type of research is exploratory and open ended.

Small number of people is interviewed in depth and or a relatively small number of focus groups are conducted.

• Phenomenology: This is a form of research in which the researcher attempts to understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon. Example: We might interview 20 victims of Bhopal tragedy. The study has roots in philosophical perspectives.
  
  
• Ethnography: This type of research focuses on describing the culture of a group of people. A culture is the shared attributes, values, norms, practices, language and material things of a group of people. Example: The researcher might decide to go and live with the tribal in Andaman island and study the culture and the educational practices.
  
  
• Case Study: This is a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a detailed account of one or more cases. Example: This may study a classroom that was given a new curriculum for technology use.
  
  
• Grounded Theory: Grounded theory generates or discover a theory an abstract, analytical scheme of phenomenon. This is an inductive type of research, based or grounded in the observations of data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data sources, including quantitative data, review of records, interviews, observation and surveys.
  
  
• Historical Research: Research on past social forces which have shaped the present is historical research. It allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the present condition and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and problems. Example: The lending pattern of business in the 19th century.
  
  
• Ex-post facto Research: Ex-post facto research is an emperical enquiry for situations that have already occured. For example: Market failure for any company’s product if studied or researched later may be categorized as post facto research.

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Characteristics of Research

Following are the essential characteristics of an ideal researcher.

• An unquenchable and strong desire to find out the truth
  
  
• Ability to identify similarity in diverse situations and diversity in similar Situations
  
  
• Curiosity, quest, doubt, patient, slow thinking, willingness to reexamine, discipline, no dogmatism are according to Francis Beacon, essential attributes of a researcher
  
  
• According to John Thompson, a researcher should have
  • insistence for data
  • caution in statements
  • clear right/understanding
  • awareness about multiplicity in varied social interrelations
    
    
• According to Carl Pearson, disciplined imagination is the distinguishable characteristics of an ideal researcher
  
  
• According to Sidney and Beatrice Web, a researcher must always avoid the influence of his personal biases
  
  
• A researcher, according to C. Luther Fry, must possess intellectual honesty and integrity
  
  
• According to Spaher and Swanson, a researcher must love his work, have abundant patience and perseverance, insist on authority and correctness of data, posses equity of consideration, thoughtfulness, and broadly responsible and always focused

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Research process

To make your research efforts successful and socially meaningful, the whole approach has to be carefully planned and executed step by step in a scientific and logical way. It is, therefore, necessary to explain and present steps and design of any research work carefully.

Following are the steps in research process:

• Explain the objectives of research, present the problem and state the hypothesis/es.
  
  
• Elaborate on the research design mainly with reference to methodology of data collection and analysis.
  
  
• System of data collection with clear understanding of sampling techniques and/or census approach.
  
  
• Description, tabulation, coding, analysis of data and statement of analytical results/findings.
  
  
• Interpretation of these findings/results and reaching objective conclusions.
  
  
• Attempting reliable prediction.

Selection of the research topic/question is the first critically important step. Practical problems, emerging needs, scientific curiosity, intellectual quest values of life, life experiences are the main sources of research topics or questions.

Secondly, formation of the hypothesis is the next step. Before we start collecting, tabulating and analyzing data, it is necessary to have ‘a priori’ causal relationship which may explain the phenomenon under study, this is known as hypothesis/es.

A hypothesis/es explain the cause-effect relationship at a logical level. The hypothesis gives us basic concepts on the basis of which we collect data generate data, for empirical evidence.

In formulation of hypothesis, we in a way, organize our research question in a scientific way. The words hypothesis and concepts are explained elaborately in subsequent units.

In formulating research question and research design it is necessary that

• the researcher has advanced in-depth reading in related literature,
• he is fully aware of the current theories and research in related area
• he has close interaction with peers in the field and
• he must possess an inquisitive imaginative scientific mindset.

Thirdly, it is necessary to have a well planned research design. It helps in focussing work, precise explanation of events / questions and most importantly a research design helps in minimization of variance in the research system.

According to R. L. Ackoff there are two types of research design- Ideal Research Design – a design without practical limitation, the other research design is practical / feasible research design. In this, we consider limitations like time, resources availability of data and intellectual skills of the researcher.

Normally a practical research design has four important constituents.

• Sampling Design
• Statistical design
• Observational Design
• Operational Design

In preparing a practical research design, the researcher has to consider following aspects,

• What is the primary research focus?
• What is the data required for the research?
• What are the exact objectives of the research?
• Sources of data?
• Places to be visited for research
• Time limits
• A number of entities to be involved in the research
• Criteria of sampling
• Methods of data collection
• Methods of data coding classification and tabulation.
• Material / financial resources available for research.

Broadly, there are five types of research design, according to Mac-Grant.

• Controlled experiment
• Study / case study
• Survey sample / census
• Investigation
• Action research

According to Seltiz and others, there are basically three types of research design,

• Exploratory or formulative
• Descriptive or diagnostic
• Studies testing causal hypothesis.

Exploratory research relies heavily on review of literature, review of experience and entities/cases encouraging intuitions or inspiration. This depends heavily on the attitude of scientist, intensity of/or depth of his study/integrative powers of the researcher normally, reaction of indifferent individuals, behaviour of marginal individuals/groups, developmental transition, isolates, deviants and pathological cases and pure cases constitute factors which induce a researcher to explore.

In the case of many social sciences, majority of researchers collect and describe information regarding various groups, communities and sets of experiences consumption patterns, saving habits, investment, likes and dislikes, work culture, price responses, management decisions and practices, entrepreneurial behaviours, business leadership etc are such areas of research.

In the case of studies testing causal hypothesis the main objective of research is to verify an assumed causation, either positively or negatively. In such researches, experimental method is more frequently used.

However, with the passage of time and revolutionary changes in technology of analysis, experimental method is now used, as in natural sciences, in social sciences also. In a very formal way experiment is a way of organizing evidence so as to reach inference about the appropriateness of a hypothesis which essentially is a statement of relationship between a cause (set of causes) and a result (set of results).

In the case of experimental design two approaches are mainly practiced

• after only experiment
• before after experiment.

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Importance of Research

• Government Policies
• Allocation of National Resources
• Investigation of Economic Structure
• Social Welfare and Progress

Government Policies

Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. For example, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet those needs. The cost of needs has to be equated to probable revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through research we can devise alternative policies and can well examine the consequences of each of these alternatives.

Allocation of National Resources

Government has to chalk out programmes for dealing with all facets of the country’s existence and most of these will be related directly or indirectly to economic conditions. The plight of cultivators, the problems of big and small business and industry, working conditions, trade union activities, the problem of distribution, even the size and nature of defense services are matters requiring research. Thus research is considered necessary with regard to the allocation of nation’s resources.

Investigation of Economic Structure

Research is necessary for collection of information on the economic and social structure of the nation. Such information indicates what is happening in the economy, and what changes are taking place. Collecting such statistical information involves a variety of research problems.

Social Welfare and Progress

Ignorance and lack of knowledge is the root cause of various social mishaps. Communal troubles, religious riots, the misnomer of social, racial superiority are results of ignorance. Through research it is possible to drive away with all these wrong notions. Research is helpful in the welfare and progress of humanity and the society.

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Advantages of Research

• Research addresses the target audience
• Research helps to identify the problems
• Research ensures the data proprietary
• Research helps to find the ambiguously

Research addresses the target audience

Research helps to address the target audience. The organization asking for the research has the complete control on the process and the research is streamlines as far as its objectives and scope is concerned. Researching company can be asked to concentrate their efforts to find data regarding specific market rather than concentration on mass market.

Research helps to identify the problems

The problem should be clearly defined and sharply delineated. The statement of the decision problem should include its scope, limitations and precise specifications of areas significant to research. Research assists for data interpretation: The collected data can be examined and interpreted by the marketers depending on their needs rather than relying on the interpretation made by collectors of secondary data.

Research ensures the data proprietary

Collector of primary data is the owner of that information and he need not share it with other companies and competitors. This gives an edge over competitors replying on secondary data. Research considers the objectivity: Research concentrates on identifying and working towards common objectives. Objective is the sense that it must answer the research questions. This necessitates the formulation of a proper hypothesis; otherwise there may be lack of congruence between the research questions and the hypothesis.

Research helps to find the ambiguously

Generalizations that outrun the evidence on which the researchers are based tend to leave an unfavorable impression. Such reports are not valuable to managers for business decision making. Presentation should be comprehensive, easily understood and organized. Language should be restrained, clear and precise when findings are presented.

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Disadvantages of Research

• Lack of Training
• Lack of confidence
• Lack of Interaction
• Lack of Resources
• Lack of Co-ordination

Lack of Training

The lack of scientific training in the methodology of research is a great handicap for researchers in our country. There is a paucity of competent researchers in our country.

Lack of confidence

The business houses are often reluctant to supply the needed information to research because of fear of misuse of information. Repetition: Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate information.

Lack of Interaction

There is insufficient interaction between the university research department, on the one hand and business establishments, government departments and research institutions, on the other. Absence of Code of Conduct: There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-University and inter-departmental rivalries are also quite common.

Lack of Resources

For conducting quality research adequate funds are not provided.

Lack of Co-ordination

There exists lack of co-ordination among various agencies responsible for conducting research. Problem of Conceptualization: Many a time problems of conceptualization and problems relating to the process of data collection and related things crop up resulting in wastage of resources.