What is Conflict? Definitions, Views, Types, Classification, Causes, Consequences

What is Conflict?

Conflict is a state of discord caused by the actual or perceived opposition of needs, values and interests. A conflict can be internal (within oneself) or external (between two or more individuals). Conflict explains many aspects of social life such as social disagreement, conflict of interests and fight between individuals, groups or organisations.

In political terms, “conflict” can refer to wars, revolutions or other struggles, which may involve use of force. Without proper social arrangement or resolution, conflict in social settings can result in stress or tension amongst stakeholders. Conflict arises “when two or more parties, with perceived incompatible goals seek to undermine each other’s goal-seeking capability”.

Conflict arises in the situations of competition and co-operation. In competitive situations, two or more individuals or parties have mutually inconsistent goals and either party tries to reach their goal and undermine the attempts of the other to reach theirs. Therefore, competitive situations will, by their nature, cause conflict. However, conflict can also occur in cooperative situations, in which two or more individuals or parties have consistent goals, but the manner in which one party tries to reach their goal can still undermine the other individual or party. A clash of interests, values, actions or directions often results in conflict.

Conflict refers to existence of that clash. Psychologically, conflict exists when reduction of one motivating stimulus involves increase in another so that new adjustment is demanded. Even when we say there is a potential conflict, we are implying that there is already a conflict of direction even though a clash may not yet have occurred.

“Organisational conflict is disagreement between two or more organisational members or groups arising from the fact that they must share scarce resources or work activities and/ or from the fact that they have different statuses, goals, values, or perceptions.”

Conflict is a daily part of life in groups and organisations. It is an inevitable feature of present-day organisations. The management of conflict is essential prerequisite to sound management of human relations. It is very difficult to explain the essential ingredients of ‘Conflict’ in a precise definition.

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Definitions of Conflict

A few definitions of ‘conflict’ are explained as under for understanding its meaning:

According to Marry Parker Follett, “Conflict is the appearance of difference of opinions of interests.”

In the worlds of Louis R. Pondy, “Conflict may broadly be viewed as a break- down in the standard mechanism of a decision making.”

According to S.P. Robbins, “Conflict is o process in which an effort is purposefully made by one person or unit to block another that results in frustrating the attainment of the other’s goals or the furthering his or her interest.”

According to David I. Austin, “Conflict can be defined as a disagreement between two or more individuals with each individual or group trying to gain acceptance of his view or objectives over others.”

Chung and Meggionson observe, “Conflict is the struggle between incompatible or struggling needs, wishes, ideas, interest of people. Conflict arises where individuals or groups encounter goals that both parties cannot obtain satisfactorily.”

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Different Views on Conflict

There are three main views on conflict:

Traditional View

According to this view, conflict was very harmful and has been viewed very negatively. This view representative human behaviour prevailed during 1930s and 1940s.Conflict caused lone in productivity because various groups did not co-operate in getting the jobs done and also not shared important information. Managers also could not concentrate on their work due to too much conflict’

The traditional writers believed that conflict is inherently bad and it must be curbed. It led to improve and malfunctioning of the management. It could not build the organisation and workers together. Thus, the traditional thinkers on conflict had a very conservative view about the conflict as they considered-it totally harmful and bad and they stressed on the avoidance of conflict.

Human Relations View

The human relations view prevailed in the conflict theory during 1940s up to the mid of 1970s.This view emphasized-that conflict was a natural occurrence in all groups and organisations. This view further advocated that conflict was inevitable and management should accept it.

The occurrence of conflict could be avoided by creating an environment of mutual trust and goodwill. Conflicts may arise due to the faulty policies and procedures and lock of co-operation and improper communication. The human rationalists considered conflict harmful and suggested to resolve it soon in the best interest of the organisation and individuals.

Interactionist View

This is considered as modern approach in conflict theory. This view considered that conflict is not only a positive force in a group but is also necessary for the group to perform efficiently. It is the task of the group leader to allow conflicts to happen to keep the group viable’ self critical and creative.

Conflicts are helpful to make the group member innovative and imaginative. The conflicts must be kept under the control to avoid their dysfunctional consequences. It is difficult to conclude that conflict is good or bad. It will depend on whether the conflict is functional or dysfunctional in nature. A functional conflict encourages the group for better performance and attainment of group goals. On the other hand a dysfunctional conflict is destructive in nature and adversely affects the group functioning.

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Features or Characteristics of Conflict

Following are the main features of conflict:

• Conflict occurs when two or more persons pursue mutually exclusive goals, values or ents. It is based on the assumption that there are two or more parties whose interests or goals appear to be incompatible.
  
  
• Conflict is a dynamic process as it indicates a series of events. Each conflict is made up of a series of interlocking conflicts/episodes”
  
  
• Conflict refers to deliberate behaviour on the part of one person against the other. If it is accidental, there is no conflict.
  
  
• Conflict must be perceived by the parties to it. It no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally agreed that no conflict exists.
  
  
• It usually arises because of scarcity of resources. When people compete for scarce resources, they hold different views about how best they can utilise those resources to achieve the organisational goals.
  
  
• It is caused by different perceptions that different individuals hold about the same object or goal. While A thinks a course of action is right, B does not hold the same opinion. This leads to conflict of opinion on the same subject.

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Types of Conflict

Following are the main types of conflict:

Vertical Conflict

It is also known as hierarchical conflict arises between superior and the subordinates. In other words occurs between various levels in an organisation. C.G. smith identified three reasons for vertical conflicts, viz., (a) Inadequate communication between levels, (b) differences of interest between position holders occupying different status in the organizational hierarchy, and (c) a distinct lack of shared perceptions and attitudes among members in various levels.

Vertical conflicts arise because superiors attempt to control subordinates and subordinates tend to resist forcing the superior to increase the dosage of impersonal rules to exact obedience and gain control.

Horizontal Conflict

It occurs between persons or groups and departments operating at the same level in the hierarchy. The source of conflict between departments consists of pressures toward sub optimization. Each department may suboptimize by independently trying to achieve its own, departmental goals.

For example, production department may prefer long economical runs whereas sales department may insist on quick delivery. Again, when two departments are functionally independent, breakdown in the performance of one department can lead to serious conflicts.

Line-staff Conflict

This type of conflict occurs when line and staff officers disagree over important issues in their working relationships. Conflict arises on account of the superiority of staff officers for major impact on certain areas of line operations. In other words staff is specialist, whereas the line officers are generalists, it leads to conflict between the line and staff officers.

Other various causes of conflict between line and staff officers have different time horizons, objectives and interpersonal orientation and approaches to organizational problems. For example, Dalton found that staff employees were usually younger, had a upper level of education and came from different social backgrounds than line employees. These different personal characteristics which one frequently associated with different values and belief often lead to conflict between line and staff personnel.

Role Conflict

Every individual plays a number of roles in social and organisational situations. The role played by a person in the organisation is relevant to his behaviour. Every person is expected to behave in a particular manner while performing a specific role.

When the expected role differs from the behaviour anticipated by the individual in that role conflict arises. Everyone plays the role of a superior and subordinate, whenever there are different expectations in relation to himself and others, conflict ought to arise. Similarly conflict may also arise whenever there is overlapping of the two roles played simultaneously by the same person.

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Classification of Conflict

Conflicts can also be classified as:

Individual Level Conflict

In this case, the individual is not in a position to take a proper decision about certain matters. He is confused and faces difficulty to select proper decision out of alternative course of actions. The individual is caught in his web.

He faces a conflict within himself. He is confronted with many puzzling questions, viz. whether to carry on the present job inspite of its inbuilt disincentives? Whether to take the inhuman treatment given daily by the Boss? To do or not to do? Basically, individual conflict can relate to two things: conflict arising due to divergent goals, or conflict arising from out of multiple roles to be played daily.

Interpersonal Conflict

Interpersonal conflict involves two or more individuals rather than one individual. For example,, two managers completing for promotion. The most commonly cited reasons for interpersonal conflicts are:

• Personality differences: Some people have difficulty in getting along with others. This is a psychological problem and it has nothing to do with their job requirements or formal interactions.
  
  
• Perceptions: Varied backgrounds, experiences, education and training, result individuals developing different perceptions of similar realities, the result being an increase in the likelihood of inter-personal conflict.
  
  
• Clashes of values and interests: Conflict that so commonly develops between engineering and manufacturing personnel shows, how differences in values lead to conflict.

Members of engineering department may prefer quality, sophisticated design and durability, while the members of the manufacturing department might value simplicity and low manufacturing costs.

• Power and Status differences: Interpersonal conflict arises from unequal distribution of power and status. Such conflicts usually occur in the power and status inconsistencies.
  
  
• Scarce resources: Interpersonal conflict is almost certain if there is scarcity. Conflicts over scarce resources are exceedingly common in the organisations. Where the scarcity is absolute (the resource level cannot be enhanced), it is very difficult to manage interpersonal conflicts. For example, three qualified individuals are expecting superior position in the organisation and there is only one such position, interpersonal conflict may develop to an unmanageable level.

Whetten and Camerson have given four sources of interpersonal conflict. These are:

• Personal differences: Personal differences are the major source of conflict between individuals. Individual differ on account of one’s upbringing, cultural, family, traditions, education, family background, experience and values. Deficiency of information: This type of conflict arises due to communication breakdown in the organisation.
  
  
• Role Incompatibility: In today’s inter functional organisation, only managers have functions and task that are independent and the individual roles of these managers may be incompatible.
  
  
• Environmental Stress: Environmental stress is another reason for interpersonal conflict Stress from environment arises because of scarce resources, competitive pressures and high degree of uncertainty.

Interpersonal conflicts resolve themselves because the conflicting parties are not in a position to remain tense for a long time. If interpersonal conflicts are of persisting nature, it can be resolved through conflict and create an atmosphere of trust and confidence in the organisation.

Group Level Conflict

A group consists of two or more persons who are in interaction with each other. Group has a well defined role of its members and system of values and norms of behaviour for the smooth working of the group. Two types of conflicts are in group level conflicts.

• Intra-group conflict: Such conflicts arise among the members of the same group. Intra group conflict is like the interpersonal conflict with the difference that the persons involved in the conflict belong to a common group.
  
  
  Intra group may arise on account of the following reasons:
  • When the group faces a new problem,
  • When new values are imported from the social environment into the group,
  • When a person’s extra group role comes into conflict with his intra group role.
    
    
• Inter-Group Conflict: Conflicts among different groups in the organisation are known as inter-group conflict. A conflict between production team and marketing team is an example of inter-group conflict. Inter-group conflicts arise when (a) There is need for joint decision making, (b) there is differentiation of goals, different persons have different views regarding goals, and (c) there is difference in perceptions of reality.

Causes of Inter-Group Conflict: Following are the main causes of such conflicts:

• Joint decision making: Due to interdependence on each other, groups are involved in joint decision making process. This process may not progress smoothly in these circumstances:
  
  
  • (a) If people have different sources of information
  • (b) If there are leakages and obstructions in the channels of information to different levels and departments.
  • (c) If the techniques for processing of information by different groups are different. In such circumstances misunderstanding is bound to be created among various groups which ultimately lead to conflict.
    
    
• Sharing of resources: The resources at the disposal of the organisation are limited and they have to be shared by different groups. Each group wants a greater share of limited resources which leads to conflicts.
  
  
• Inter-dependency: Different departments operating in an organisation are interlinked and inter dependent on each other in carrying their functions. For example, there may be misunderstanding between manufacturing and production departments if the latter is not able to complete an order as desired by the former.
  
  
• Lack of Co-ordination: lack of co-ordination among various departments in an organisation is another cause of conflict. Coordination is adversely affected when different groups may engage themselves in power struggle in the organization. Different groups want to establish their supremacy.
  
  
• Line and Staff Conflicts: Line and staff differences are the most common type of inter group conflicts.
  
  This conflict is basically a clash of domains by dividing expertise, authority & roles. Dalton’s study of line and staff conflict highlighted the following sources:
  
  
  • Line managers dislike taking advice from younger staff specialists.
    
    
  • Line manners label ‘staff’ as agents on trial. The staff, in turn, views himself as an agent.
    
    
  • Line managers feel that staff over steps its authority.
    
    
  • Line managers resent staff highly as they are academic and untested ideas.
    
    
• Difference in goals: Various groups differ in their views about organisational goals, because of the following reasons:
  
  
  • Quite often the goals of one group are incompatible with those of other groups.
    
    
  • Individuals who are the members of different groups differ in family background, culture, education and training etc. Various professionals look at the organisational goals from their respective professional point of view. It leads to conflict over goals.
    
    
  • Pattern of interaction among the group members may lead to differentiation of goals. They may not interact frequently, this leads to conflict. On the other hand, if the members interact quite often, they are likely to share their group goals with the organisational goals in a better way.
    
    
• Differences in perceptions: The differences in goals among the members of the various departments in the organisation are frequently accompanied by differences in attitudes, values and perceptions that can also lead to conflict. People may have different perceptions if the flow of information is not smooth. Lack of inadequacy of information with the some people is bound to affect their perceptions.
  
  
• Organisational Reward System: Inter-group conflicts also arise because of the way in which an organisation reviews group performance and distribute awards-both economic and non-economic. If the reward system allows only one group to accomplish its goals at the expense of other groups, there are bound to be conflicts and existence of power struggle among the groups.
  
  
• Distorted communication: Inadequate or unclear communication creates conflicts because important information is held back and parties do not know each others jobs. It may be observed that improper communication leads to serious conflict among various groups in an organisation.
  
  
• Heterogeneity of members: Personality differences such as background, education, age and training etc. Lower the interpersonal rapport and cooperation between various departments & leads to conflicts.
  
  
• Organisational level conflict: All the conflicts discussed above relate to conflicts within the organisational settings. Inter organisational level conflict occurs between organisations which are in some way or the other dependent upon each other.
  
  For example, conflict can be between the buyer and seller organisation, between the union and organisation enjoying the members, between government agencies that regulate certain organisations and the organisations that are affected by them. If this conflict is properly handled, it can be constructive in achieving results.

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Causes of Conflicts

Conflicts arise due to the following reasons:

Differences in perception

Differences in perceptions, values and attitudes of individuals or groups over the same problem leads to interpersonal or intergroup conflicts. For example, one group of individuals may want that all employees use HP computers to maintain standardisation while another group may promote different brands of computers to maintain individuality. Differences in views lead to conflicts.

Excessive competition

Organisational resources (men, material, money, space etc.) are scarce and each unit wants maximum share of it. Competition amongst units for maximum share of resources leads to conflict.

Differences in goals

Different goals of individuals or groups leads to conflict amongst them. In order to maximise profits, production department may want to produce limited varieties in large volume so that costs are minimised. Sales department, on the other hand, may feel that selling products of different sizes, colours and models can increase sales and, thus, minimise costs. Differences in group goals leads to conflict between the two. It may even affect the quality of products.

Interdependence of tasks

When work is passed from one unit to the other, interdependence amongst units can lead to conflict. Output of first unit becomes input of second unit.

If first unit fails to process its work on time, the second unit will have to wait and stay idle till it receives the process. This can cause inter-group conflict.

Habit patterns

Some people like to argue and debate. They enjoy conflict as a matter of habit. It acts as a motivator for them to improve their performance.

Personal characteristics

When group members differ in work attitudes, age, education, temperament and status levels, the potential for inter-group conflict is high.

Ill defined authority – responsibility relationships

When authority and responsibility of individuals and groups is not properly defined, people do not understand each other’s role. There is lack of consistency in work activities and communication distortions take place. This becomes a source for inter-group conflict.

Consequences of Conflict

Conflict has both positive and negative consequences. Positive conflict is known as functional conflict and negative conflict is known as dysfunctional conflict.

Positive Conflict (Functional Conflict)

Conflict is not only inevitable, it is also desirable. It is constructive and encourages new ideas to solve organisational problems. It promotes change and keeps the organisation going in the desired direction. It believes that conflict has the following positive consequences:

High degree of cohesion

Inter-group conflict gives rise to commitment and loyalty amongst members of the group. Group members unite together, take advantage of opportunities, overcome threats and take strong actions to resolve their problems. All members of the group work together for a common goal.

It promotes group cohesiveness if people of different groups compete with each other. In order to do better, members of each group work together. They become loyal and bonded to each other which promotes organisational performance.

Improvement in quality of decisions

When group members face conflict, they think of all possible solutions to the problem, evaluate the decisions and use their creative and innovative abilities to arrive at the best decisions. Inter-group conflict, thus, improves the quality of decisions and stimulates creativity and innovation. When people have conflicting opinions, they deeply analyse facts of the case. Deep understanding of concepts promotes new thinking, new ideas and, thus, fosters innovation.

Emergence of leaders

Everybody does not think alike in conflicting situation. Group members bestow power on those who can positively contribute to the problem situation to take decisions. Increased power gives rise to leaders who act as the group captain. This also reduces rivalry amongst members to become group leaders.

Response to change

Conflict promotes change if people do not readily agree to each other. Differences in opinions, values and perception introduce new ways of working which is different from the traditional thinking. Conflicts challenge the existing state of affairs and promote new ideas and reassessment of current group practices. Conflict signals something wrong with the present system of working and promotes ability to assess the present and desire for a better future. Conflict, thus, increases responsiveness of group to change.

Increased productivity

It is empirically proved that productivity of conflicting groups is more than those which have close agreement amongst the members. Members with different perceptions and interests produce high-quality solutions to problems. This improves productivity of the group. Conflicts highlight weaknesses in the existing system of management. These weaknesses can be removed to improve efficiency of the organisation’s operating system.

Releases strain

If group members do not agree with pre-defined values and norms, conflicts give them a ground for voicing their reservations. This releases strain that would otherwise remain suppressed in their minds. In conflicting situations, people openly express their thoughts and feelings, even if they are against the thought process of other members of the organisations. This releases strain and provides mental satisfaction to the members.

Negative Conflict (Dysfunctional Conflict)

In positive conflict, differences in opinion do not hurt anyone’s feelings. People respect each other’s ideas and arrive at new solutions to the problems to develop working relationships. In negative conflict, on the contrary, people show disrespect for others’ ideas. They aim to promote their interests at the cost of others.

The negative consequences of conflict are as follows:

Mental strain

Excessive conflict creates tension and frustration amongst people. This not only harms the individuals (as they may enter into a state of depression) but also harms the organisation (people do not positively contribute to organisational productivity).

Discontentment

Conflict breeds antagonism and discontentment. This reduces power to think creatively and reduces group effectiveness. If people do not arrive at mutually agreeable solutions, it results in discontentment. People are not satisfied with their jobs. This lowers the organisational productivity.

Communication breakdown

When individuals or groups develop conflicting ideas, they avoid interacting with each other. This reduces communication amongst them leading to inter-group rivalry and loss of productive ideas. As conflicts lead to disagreement and communication breakdown, people do not agree with each other leading to splitting up of groups and units. This diverts energy from organisational goals and leads to instability in the organisational structure.

Resignation

Discontentment can lead to resignation from jobs. If results are not in favour of people who strongly oppose certain decisions, they do not wish to work in those organisations and look for other job outlets. If these people are dynamic and creative individuals, it is loss for the organisation.

Distorted perceptions

Groups hold strong perceptions about their activities and disregard those of the other group. They highlight their strong points and competitors’ weak points. This leads to deviation from organisational goals.

Competitive struggle

Conflict leads to competition. Rather than arriving at consensus, agreement or settlement, competitive struggle declines group’s ability to think and act positively.

Subordination of group goals to individual goals

Members promote personal goals rather than group goals. They think of ways to promote their personal interests rather than organisational interests. This reduces organisational efficiency. People divert energy from constructive to destructive thinking.

They think of how to win over conflicting situations rather than pursuing organisational goals. Short-term personal problems, thus, supersede long-term interests of the organisation. People focus on personal goals at the cost of organisational goals. This results in goal displacement as short-term perspective overpowers the long-term perspective.

Threat to group survival

In extreme situations, members can stop working. This stops functioning of the group and threatens its survival.

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Management of Conflict

Conflict cannot and should not be avoided. There is always an optimum level of conflict at which organisational performance is the highest. When the level of conflict is low, the organisation will not be adaptive to change.

This threatens its long-run survival. When the level of conflict is too high, it creates chaos and disruptions in the organisation. This also threatens its long-run survival. There is need, therefore, for managers to resolve conflict. They should promote functional or constructive conflict and avoid dysfunctional or destructive conflict.

Management of conflict involves:

Stimulation of functional conflict

The following methods help to stimulate or encourage constructive conflict:

• Bring managers with backgrounds, values and styles different from those who are presently working in the organisation.
  
  
• Add or delete individuals and groups to the existing network. This will re-distribute power and, thus, stimulate conflict.
  
  
• Break old teams and departments and re-organise them. New work, members and responsibilities will be created requiring adjustment with each other. This will give rise to conflict and new and improved methods of operation.
  
  
• Allow members to openly communicate with each other. Members can freely discuss their problems, disagree with each other and have a wide perspective for decision–making.
  
  
• Foster competition by paying financial and non-financial incentives for good performance. This will promote conflict as each member will try to outperform others.
  
  
• Replace authoritarian managers with behavioural managers. They promote interaction amongst group members and bring out their hidden desires thereby, resulting in conflict.
  
  
• Create an environment of creative and innovative thinking. When members find new ways for doing the work, it will promote conflict and productive suggestions.
  
  
• Introduce changes in people, structure and technology.
  
  
• Allow compromise where each party is concerned about their goal accomplishment and is willing to engage in ‘give and take’ to reach a reasonable solution.
  
  
• Allow collaboration where parties try to manage conflict without making concessions by coming up with new ways to resolve differences.

Resolution of dysfunctional conflict

These methods suppress or resolve conflict rather than promote them. They are as follows:

• Introduce changes in the organisation structure so that conflicting parties are separated and placed at different positions.
  
  
• Introduce participative style of management where decisions reflect the opinion of all.
  
  
• Integrate individual goals with organisational goals so that both individuals and organisations promote each other’s interests.
  
  
• Managers should call the conflicting parties, listen to their arguments and try to get one side into giving in. This is helpful when manger has more information than the parties and he can satisfy each one of them.
  
  
• Provide incentives (financial and non-financial) to all rather than those who report outstanding performance.
  
  
• Install training programmes for improving relationships amongst individuals and groups. (g) Avoiding action or taking no action saying that information is insufficient will postpone and resolve the conflict on its own.
  
  
• Conflict can be resolved through compromise. Managers can convince each party to sacrifice some objectives in order to gain others.
  
  
• Allow arbitration where conflicting parties submit to the judgement of a third party.
  
  
• Transfer people from one work unit to the other and allow overlapping of membership. When one person is a member of two groups, conflict gets reduced.
  
  
• Obeying rules strictly reduces conflict. Let every conflicting situation be handled according to rules.
  
  
• Allow the parties to resolve conflict through consensus. The parties try to find solutions together rather than winning over each other.
  
  
• Establish superordinate goals. These are goals set for level higher than that of conflicting parties and include the conflicting parties’ lower level goals. The parties deviate from conflicts at their level to higher level goals. Achieving superordinate goals resolves conflicts at their level.

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Five Ways of Addressing Conflict Are Identified by Thomas and Kilman

Avoidance

One should avoid or postpone conflict by ignoring it or changing the subject. Avoidance can be useful as a temporary measure to buy time or as an expedient means of dealing with minor, non-recurring conflicts. In more severe cases, conflict avoidance can involve severing a relationship or leaving a group.

Collaboration

People should work together to find a mutually beneficial solution to the problem. Though this is a win-win solution to conflict, collaboration can also be time-intensive and inappropriate if there is absence of trust, respect or communication amongst participants.

Compromise

Conflicting parties find a middle ground in which each party is partially satisfied.

Competition

Both the parties should assert their viewpoint at the potential expense of another. It can be useful when achieving one’s objectives outweighs one’s concern for the relationship.

Accommodation

If above measures do not help to resolve conflict, one party surrenders its needs and wishes to accommodate the other party.